Major Theoretical Strands in Research Methodology
Understanding social reality requires more than just collecting facts. Human beings continuously interpret, categorize, and assign meaning to their experiences. Sociological theories provide these interpretive frameworks. They highlight relationships between concepts, explain social patterns, and guide methodological approaches in research.
Research methodology in sociology is deeply shaped by certain theoretical traditions. Among the most influential are:
These perspectives offer distinct ways of studying society, knowledge creation, and meaning construction. Let us examine them in detail.
1. Functionalism
Functionalism (also known as structural functionalism) views society as a complex and interrelated system, where every part performs a necessary role. When these parts function smoothly, society remains in a state of equilibrium; dysfunction in any part leads to social disturbances.
Foundational Thinkers
- Auguste Comte – Saw society as evolving toward stability and positivity.
- Herbert Spencer – Compared society to a living organism; institutions function like organs.
- Émile Durkheim – Highlighted the role of collective conscience and social facts.
All believed that institutions such as family, education, religion, and economy work together to maintain social order.
Structure and Function
Functionalists argue that to understand social life, we must examine:
- Structure: How parts of society fit together.
- Function: The role each part plays, and how it contributes to stability.
For example:
- Family ensures socialization.
- Education sorts individuals into appropriate roles.
- Religion strengthens moral values.
Robert K. Merton’s Contributions
Merton refined the theory by distinguishing types of consequences:
Manifest Functions
These are intended outcomes.
- Example: Scholarship programs aim to increase access to education.
Latent Functions
Unintended but beneficial consequences.
- Scholarship programs may also boost textbook sales or attract businesses near campuses.
Latent Dysfunctions
Unintended and harmful consequences.
Over-competition may lead to stress, dropouts, or unethical behavior.
Merton rejected the rigid “organic analogy”, yet maintained the focus on social balance.
Functionalist View
According to functionalists:
- Society is integrated.
- Institutions support each other.
- Order and stability are necessary conditions for survival.
This perspective is often applied to families, schools, bureaucracies, and religious institutions.
Criticisms of Functionalism
Despite its influence, functionalism faces strong criticism:
- Idealistic/Utopian
- It assumes harmony and ignores exploitation.
- Ignores Conflict
- It overlooks power struggles, inequality, and coercion.
- Status Quo Bias
- It normalizes existing institutions, even oppressive ones.
- Static View
- Rapid social change and revolutions cannot be explained adequately.
Conflict theorists especially argue that social systems are never fully harmonious.
2. Conflict Perspective
The conflict perspective focuses on competition between groups with unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige. It views society as an arena of struggles, where dominant groups maintain control over resources.
Core Assumptions
- Inequality is universal and persistent.
- Power determines whose values are prioritized.
- Social order is maintained through force, not consensus.
2.1 Karl Marx’s Approach
Karl Marx rooted conflict in the economic base of society. According to him:
- Bourgeoisie own production.
- Proletariat sell labor.
This economic structure breeds:
- Alienation
- Exploitation
- Class conflict
Marx believed this conflict would eventually trigger revolutionary transformation.
2.2 Neo-Conflict Approach
Modern conflict theorists expand beyond economy:
They argue:
- Authority and power differences cause conflict.
- Competing interest groups bargain and negotiate.
- Conflict can produce social reforms and stability.
In diverse societies (like India or the United States), conflicts emerge over:
- Welfare policies
- Budgets
- Gender rights
- Age benefits
Such disagreements often lead to compromise rather than collapse.
C. Wright Mills and the Power Elite
Mills argued that in modern capitalist democracies, power is concentrated in the hands of:
- Military leaders
- Industrial giants
- Political executives
Their decisions shape foreign policy, economics, and ideology. This elite alliance maintains dominance, influencing both domestic and global affairs.
When Conflict Becomes Dysfunctional
Conflict is harmful when it:
- Threatens core values
- Promotes violence
- Weakens social cohesion
However, moderate conflict often encourages negotiation, reforms, and accountability.
3. Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theoretical approach that examines social life through daily interactions. It emphasizes the role of symbols, meaning, and communication.
Basic Principles
- Humans act based on meanings.
- Meanings emerge from social interaction.
- Meanings are continuously modified through interpretation.
Symbols include:
- Language
- Gestures
- Dress codes
- Labels
Without symbols, social relationships would collapse.
Meaningful Symbols (G.H. Mead)
Symbols represent ideas beyond themselves. Shared meaning enables:
- Communication
- Cooperation
- Identity development
Language is the most powerful symbol system.
Definition of the Situation
Thomas Theorem states:
If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
Example:
- Defining someone as a friend changes behavior and expectations.
- Defining marriage as “over” can dissolve social bonds.
Looking-Glass Self (Cooley)
We build self-identity by imagining:
- How others see us
- What judgments they form
- How we feel about those perceptions
Society becomes the mirror of the self.
Dramaturgical Analysis (Goffman)
Social life is theatrical:
- Frontstage roles (public performance)
- Backstage roles (private self)
People practice impression management to present themselves desirably.
Labelling Theory
People internalize labels like:
- “criminal”
- “deviant”
- “genius”
Labels shape identity and social reaction, creating self-fulfilling prophecies.
Criticisms of Symbolic Interactionism
- Overly focused on small interactions
- Ignores economic structures
- Neglects power and history
- Does not explain origin of norms
- Sometimes tends toward subjectivity
It corrects structural determinism but sometimes ignores structural constraints.
4. Phenomenology
Phenomenology asserts that social reality is constructed through consciousness, interpretation, and subjective meanings. Humans act toward things based on meanings, not mechanical stimuli.
Key Arguments
- Natural sciences study matter externally.
- Humans must be studied internally (meaning-making).
- Social actions are intentional, not automatic.
Early humans interpreted fire differently—as warmth, protection, or cooking tool. Interpretation shaped action.
Max Weber’s Contribution
Weber proposed Verstehen:
- Interpretive understanding of motives and meanings.
- Sociology must grasp subjective intentions behind actions.
Phenomenology therefore rejects purely causal explanations.
Interpretive Sociology
Interpretation replaces measurement because:
- We cannot enter another person’s mind.
- Meanings constantly evolve.
This approach emphasizes:
- Agency
- Creativity
- Human freedom
It rejects the “puppet theory” of humans.
Critique of Positivism
Phenomenologists argue:
- Humans are not passive responders.
- Social structures are human products.
- Norms, values, and roles are negotiated, not imposed.
5. Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology studies the everyday methods people use to construct social order. Developed by Harold Garfinkel, it explores how individuals produce meaning through routines and interactions.
The term literally means:
- Ethno = people
- Methodology = methods used to understand their world
Core Assumptions
- Social order exists as long as people perceive it.
- Reality is constructed through conversation and interpretation.
- Social facts are not objective things; they are member-produced accounts.
Appearance of Order
Critique of Conventional Sociology
Mainstream sociologists treat:
- crime
- suicide
- education outcomes
as objective facts.
Ethnomethodologists argue these are constructed through:
- definitions
- narratives
- labeling
- shared assumptions
Documentary Method
Ordinary people constantly:
- theorize,
- categorize,
- relate events,
- seek patterns.
Thus, everyone acts like a lay sociologist, creating meaning from fragments.
Criticisms of Ethnomethodology
- Neglects power
- It ignores how elites shape “reality”.
- Ignores motives
- People pursue goals; these are overlooked.
- Underestimates structures
- Laws, institutions, and states affect behaviour—even if people are unaware.
- Over-relativization
- Infinite interpretation may lead to the conclusion that nothing can be known.
- Dangerous oversights
- Bombs harm whether or not someone “recognizes” them.
- Turtles-all-the-way-down problem
- Studying accounts of accounts becomes endless.
Despite these, ethnomethodology raises important questions about how reality is constructed.
Conclusion
Each theoretical strand offers a unique lens:
- Functionalism emphasizes stability and cooperation.
- Conflict theory highlights power struggles and inequality.
- Symbolic interactionism focuses on meaning and micro-interactions.
- Phenomenology stresses subjective interpretation.
- Ethnomethodology explores everyday methods of constructing order.
A complete understanding of society requires integrating macro-structures, micro-interactions, subjective meanings, and power dynamics. Together, these perspectives enrich sociological research methodology and deepen our understanding of human behaviour.
Keep Reading : Next Post - Positivism and its critique
- https://www.britannica.com
- https://www.sociologyguide.com
- https://plato.stanford.edu
1. Sociology – The Discipline
- Modernity and social changes in Europe and the emergence of Sociology.
- Scope of Sociology and comparison with other social sciences.
- Sociology and common sense.
2. Sociology as Science
- Science, scientific method, and critique.
- Major theoretical strands of research methodology.
- Positivism and its critique.
- Fact-value distinction and objectivity in social research.
- Non-positivist methodologies.
3. Research Methods and Analysis